The Evolution of Modern Tennis Who Invented the Game

Games using some form of ball and racquet have been played in numerous civilizations dating back as far as Neolithic times. Ruins in Mesoamerica indicate a particularly important place for ball games in several cultures. Theres also evidence that ancient Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians played some version of a game that resembled tennis. However, court tennis—also called real tennis and royal tennis in Great Britain and Australia—owes its beginnings to a game enjoyed by French monks that can be traced back to the 11th century. The Beginnings of Modern Tennis Monks played the French game of paume (meaning palm) on a court. Rather than a racquet, the ball was struck with the hand. Paume eventually evolved into jeu de paume (game of the palm) in which racquets were used. By the year 1500, racquets constructed of wood frames and gut strings had been developed, as well as balls made of cork and leather, and by the time the game spread to England—where both Henry VII and Henry VIII were big fans—there were as many as 1,800 indoor courts. Even with its growing popularity, tennis in the days of Henry VIII was a very different sport from todays version of the game. Played exclusively indoors, the game consisted of hitting a ball into a netted opening in the roof of a long, narrow tennis house. The net was five feet high at each end and three feet high in the center.   Outdoor Tennis By the 1700s, the games popularity had seriously dwindled but that changed dramatically with the invention of vulcanized rubber in 1850. The new hard rubber balls revolutionized the sport, making it possible for tennis to be adapted to an outdoor game played on grass. In 1873, Londoner Major Walter Wingfield invented a game called he called Sphairistikà ¨ (Greek for playing ball). Played on an hourglass-shaped court, Wingfields game created a sensation in Europe, the United States, and even China, and is the source from which tennis as we know it today eventually evolved. When the game was adopted by croquet clubs that had acres of manicured lawns, the hourglass shape gave way to a longer, rectangular court. In 1877, the former All England Croquet Club held its first tennis tournament at Wimbledon. The rules of this tournament set the standard for tennis as its played today—with some notable differences: service was exclusively underhand and  women were not allowed to play in the tournament until 1884. Tennis Scoring No one is sure where tennis scoring—love, 15, 30, 40, deuce—came from, but most sources agree it originated in France. One theory for the origin of the 60-point system is that its simply based on the number 60, which had positive connotations in medieval numerology. The 60 was then divided into four segments. The more popular explanation is that the scoring was invented to match the face of a clock with the score given in quarter-hours: 15, 30, 45 (shortened to the French for 40 quarante, rather than the longer quarante cinq for 45). It wasnt necessary to use 60 because reaching the hour meant the game was over anyway—unless it was tied at deuce. That term may have derived from the French deux, or two, indicating that from then on, two points were required to win the match. Some say the term love comes from the French word loeuf, or egg, a symbol for nothing, like a goose egg. The Evolution of Tennis Attire Perhaps the most conspicuous way tennis has evolved has do do with the games attire. At the end of the19th century, male players wore hats and ties, while pioneering women wore a version of street clothing that actually included corsets and bustles. A strict dress code was adopted by the 1890s that decreed tennis wear must be exclusively white in color (with the exception of some accent trim, and even that had to conform with stringent guidelines). The tradition of tennis whites lasted well into the 20th century. Initially, the game of tennis was for the rich. White clothing, although practical because it tends to be cooler, had to be vigorously laundered, and so it wasnt really a viable option for most working-class people. The advent of modern technology, especially the washing machine, made the game more accessible to the middle class. By the swinging ’60s, as societal rules relaxed—nowhere more so than in the realm of fashion—more and more colorful clothing began to make its way onto tennis courts. There remain some places, such as Wimbledon, where tennis whites are still required for play.

New Step by Step Roadmap for Example and Illustration Essay Topics

New Step by Step Roadmap for Example and Illustration Essay Topics Example and Illustration Essay Topics Secrets So to make certain that you compose a top-quality essay you obviously should know the inside story of the topic. Anyway, there you are able to find only great examples of the topic. If you like the topic or know quite a bit about the subject you're in a significantly greater place to compose a cracking illustrative essay. You ought to be certain to understand everything clearly once you select an essay topic. If you would like to succeed, the very first thing you are to do is to pick the suitable topic for your essay. If you want to think of an amazing subject, the initial action to do is to pick the right topic from a pool of various illustration essay topics. Why Almost Everything You've Learned About Example and Illustration Essay Topics Is Wrong Please review the below papers to get familiar with the caliber of work the writers offer. 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Basic Functions of a Network Management System. Free Essays

C H A P T E R 6 Chapter Goal †¢ Become familiar with the basic functions of a network management system. Network Management Basics Introduction This chapter describes functions common to most network-management architectures and protocols. It also presents the five conceptual areas of management as defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). We will write a custom essay sample on Basic Functions of a Network Management System. or any similar topic only for you Order Now Subsequent chapters in Part IX, â€Å"Network Management,† address specific network management technologies, protocols, and platforms in more detail. What Is Network Management? Network management means different things to different people. In some cases, it involves a solitary network consultant monitoring network activity with an outdated protocol analyzer. In other cases, network management involves a distributed database, autopolling of network devices, and high-end workstations generating real-time graphical views of network topology changes and traffic. In general, network management is a service that employs a variety of tools, applications, and devices to assist human network managers in monitoring and maintaining networks. A Historical Perspective The early 1980s saw tremendous expansion in the area of network deployment. As companies realized the cost benefits and productivity gains created by network technology, they began to add networks and expand existing networks almost as rapidly as new network technologies and products were introduced. By the mid-1980s, certain companies were experiencing growing pains from deploying many different (and sometimes incompatible) network technologies. The problems associated with network expansion affect both day-to-day network operation management and strategic network growth planning. Each new network technology requires its own set of experts. In the early 1980s, the staffing requirements alone for managing large, heterogeneous networks created a crisis for many organizations. An urgent need arose for automated network management (including what is typically called network capacity planning) integrated across diverse environments. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 6-1 Chapter 6 Network Management Architecture Network Management Basics Network Management Architecture Most network management architectures use the same basic structure and set of relationships. End stations (managed devices), such as computer systems and other network devices, run software that enables them to send alerts when they recognize problems (for example, when one or more user-determined thresholds are exceeded). Upon receiving these alerts, management entities are programmed to react by executing one, several, or a group of actions, including operator notification, event logging, system shutdown, and automatic attempts at system repair. Management entities also can poll end stations to check the values of certain variables. Polling can be automatic or user-initiated, but agents in the managed devices respond to all polls. Agents are software modules that first compile information about the managed devices in which they reside, then store this information in a management database, and finally provide it (proactively or reactively) to management entities within network management systems (NMSs) via a network management protocol. Well-known network management protocols include the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) and Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP). Management proxies are entities that provide management information on behalf of other entities. Figure 6-1 depicts a typical network management architecture. Figure 6-1 A Typical Network Management Architecture Maintains Many Relationships Network management system (NMS) Management entity Network management protocol Network Agent Agent Agent Proxy Management database Management database Management database Managed devices ISO Network Management Model The ISO has contributed a great deal to network standardization. Its network management model is the primary means for understanding the major functions of network management systems. This model consists of five conceptual areas, as discussed in the next sections. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 6-2 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 6 Network Management Basics ISO Network Management Model Performance Management The goal of performance management is to measure and make available various aspects of network performance so that internetwork performance can be maintained at an acceptable level. Examples of performance variables that might be provided include network throughput, user response times, and line utilization. Performance management involves three main steps. First, performance data is gathered on variables of interest to network administrators. Second, the data is analyzed to determine normal (baseline) levels. Finally, appropriate performance thresholds are determined for each important variable so that exceeding these thresholds indicates a network problem worthy of attention. Management entities continually monitor performance variables. When a performance threshold is exceeded, an alert is generated and sent to the network management system. Each of the steps just described is part of the process to set up a reactive system. When performance becomes unacceptable because of an exceeded user-defined threshold, the system reacts by sending a message. Performance management also permits proactive methods: For example, network simulation can be used to project how network growth will affect performance metrics. Such simulation can alert administrators to impending problems so that counteractive measures can be taken. Configuration Management The goal of configuration management is to monitor network and system configuration information so that the effects on network operation of various versions of hardware and software elements can be tracked and managed. Each network device has a variety of version information associated with it. An engineering workstation, for example, may be configured as follows: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Operating system, Version 3. 2 Ethernet interface, Version 5. 4 TCP/IP software, Version 2. 0 NetWare software, Version 4. 1 NFS software, Version 5. 1 Serial communications controller, Version 1. X. 25 software, Version 1. 0 SNMP software, Version 3. 1 Configuration management subsystems store this information in a database for easy access. When a problem occurs, this database can be searched for clues that may help solve the problem. Accounting Management The goal of accounting management is to measure network utilization parameters s o that individual or group uses on the network can be regulated appropriately. Such regulation minimizes network problems (because network resources can be apportioned based on resource capacities) and maximizes the fairness of network access across all users. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 6-3 Chapter 6 Review Questions Network Management Basics As with performance management, the first step toward appropriate accounting management is to measure utilization of all important network resources. Analysis of the results provides insight into current usage patterns, and usage quotas can be set at this point. Some correction, of course, will be required to reach optimal access practices. From this point, ongoing measurement of resource use can yield billing information as well as information used to assess continued fair and optimal resource utilization. Fault Management The goal of fault management is to detect, log, notify users of, and (to the extent possible) automatically fix network problems to keep the network running effectively. Because faults can cause downtime or unacceptable network degradation, fault management is perhaps the most widely implemented of the ISO network management elements. Fault management involves first determining symptoms and isolating the problem. Then the problem is fixed and the solution is tested on all-important subsystems. Finally, the detection and resolution of the problem is recorded. Security Management The goal of security management is to control access to network resources according to local guidelines so that the network cannot be sabotaged (intentionally or unintentionally) and sensitive information cannot be accessed by those without appropriate authorization. A security management subsystem, for example, can monitor users logging on to a network resource and can refuse access to those who enter inappropriate access codes. Security management subsystems work by partitioning network resources into authorized and unauthorized areas. For some users, access to any network resource is inappropriate, mostly because such users are usually company outsiders. For other (internal) network users, access to information originating from a particular department is inappropriate. Access to Human Resource files, for example, is inappropriate for most users outside the Human Resources department. Security management subsystems perform several functions. They identify sensitive network resources (including systems, files, and other entities) and determine mappings between sensitive network resources and user sets. They also monitor access points to sensitive network resources and log inappropriate access to sensitive network resources. Review Questions Q—Name the different areas of network management. A—Configuration, accounting, fault, security, and performance. Q—What are the goals of performance management? A—Measure and make available various aspects of network performance so that internetwork performance can be maintained at an acceptable level. Q—What are the goals of configuration management? A—Monitor network and system configuration information so that the effects on network operation of various versions of hardware and software elements can be tracked and managed. Q—What are the goals of accounting management? Internetworking Technologies Handbook 6-4 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 6 Network Management Basics Review Questions A—Measure network utilization parameters so that individual or group uses on the network can be regulated appropriately. Q—What are the goals of fault management? A—Detect, log, notify users of, and automatically fix network problems to keep the network running effectively. Q—What are the goals of security management? A—Control access to network resources according to local guidelines so that the network cannot be sabotaged and so that sensitive information cannot be accessed by those without appropriate authorization. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 6-5 Chapter 6 Review Questions Network Management Basics Internetworking Technologies Handbook 6-6 1-58705-001-3 How to cite Basic Functions of a Network Management System., Papers